Dian Handayani, Bintang Mahesa Wardana, Dania Siregar, Anang Kurnia
There are many factors that may affect the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) scores. By utilizing structural equation modeling (SEM), we identified some psychological and social factors which have direct effect as well as indirect effect on the PISA scores. These social factors include exposure to bullying at school, perception on parents’ emotional support, and sense of belonging at school. The psychological factors are competitiveness, self-efficacy, fear of failure, enthusiasm for learning, and how often students feel positive every day. Our results indicate that the total effect of students’ exposure to bullying at school, competitiveness, and enthusiasm for learning are significant (α =0.05) on the PISA scores. Most of the effect of competitiveness on PISA scores is an indirect effect, namely through learning enthusiasm. We also found that the total effect of competitiveness on mathematics literacy scores for male students is 33% greater than those found on female students. © 2026 Author(s).
Statistics Study Program, Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia; Business Analysis and Performance Evaluation, Business Support Department, PT. Pegadaian Regional Office IX Jakarta 2, Jakarta, Indonesia; School of Data Science, Mathematics and Informatics, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
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